This file is courtesy of Yaz (yaz@phoeniz.oulu.fi) Excerpt from the "Baltic Religion" article of the Encyclopedia Britannica. Transcription conventions. I have used the following ascii characters _before_ the corresponding letter to indicate various Baltic letters not found from ascii: _ before a vowel. Should be macron, and indicates the _ long vowel. E.g. "m_ate" should be "mate". . before an "e" is the Lithuanian e with dot above it. ^ before a letter, should be v above it. E.g. ^Zem.epatis should be: v . Zemepatis , before a letter should be below it. The gods. Dievs. The Baltic words Latvian dievs, Lithuanian dievas, and Old Prussian deivas are etymologically related to the Indo-European deiuos; among others, the Greek Zeus is derived from the same root. It originally meant the physical sky, but already in Old Indian and other religions the sky became personified as an anthropomorphic deity. Dievs, the pre-Christian Baltic name for god, was used by Christian missionaries (and still is) to denote the Christian God. The etymology of the word indicates that the Balts preserved its oldest forms, which is also true of the functions and attributes of the personified Baltic sky god Dievs, who lives on his farmstead on the sky mountain but does not participate in the work of the farm. Importantly, Dievs is a bridegroom who rides together with the other gods to a sky wedding in which his bride is Saule. Dievs' family is later development; in the family, Dieva d_eli (God's Sons) play the primary role. Thus Dievs is pictured as the father of a family of sky gods. Besides such anthropomorphic characteristics, another characteristic that gives Dievs a universal significance may be observed: he appears as the creator of order in the world on the one hand, and as the judge and guardian of moral law on the other. From time to time he leaves the sky mountain and actively takes part in the everyday life of the farmers below. His participation in various yearly festivals is vividly described. In spite of this, the Baltic Dievs is similar to the Old Indian Dyaus, the Greek Zeus, and other personifications of the sky. Such divinities have a tendency, in comparison with other gods of their religions, to recede into a secondary role. P_erkons. In Baltic, as in other Indo-European religions, there is, in addition to Dievs, the Thunderer (Latvian P_erkons, Lithuanian Perk_unas) with quite specific functions. P_erkons is described in the oldest chronicles and in poetic and epic folklore, but, though he is a primary divinity there is no reason to believe that he is the main god. His abode is in the sky, and, like Dievs, he sometimes descends from the sky mountain. He has two main characteristics. First, he is a mighty warrior, metaphorically described as the sky smith, and the scourge of evil. His role as adversary of the devil and other evil spirits is of secondary importance and has been formed to a great extent under the influence of Christian syncretism. Secondly, he is a fertility god, and he controls the rain, an important event in the life of farmers. Various sacrifices were made to him in periods of drought as well as in times of sickness and plague. No other god occupied a place of such importance at the farmer's table during festivals, especially in the fall at harvest time. Like the other sky gods, he also has a family. Even though his daughters are mentioned occassionally, originally he had only sons, and myths depicting sky weddings portray his role vividly, as a bridegroom and as the father in his sons' weddings. Saule. The sun, Saule, occupies the central place in the pantheon of Baltic gods. The divinity of the sun has been recognized all over the world, and the Balts were no exception. The Baltic description of the sun as divinity is so complete and specific that it was one of the first to be studied by scholars. Of greatest importance is the similarity in both functions and attributes of Saule and the ancient Indian god S_urya. Similarities between the two gods are so great that, were not the two peoples separated by several thousand miles and several millennia, direct contact between them would be indicated instead of only a common origin. The representation of Saule is dualistic in that she is depicted as a mother on one hand, and a daughter on the other. Her attributes are described according to the role she plays. As a daughter she is mentioned only when she is a bride to the other sky gods. But as her daughters frequently are in the same role, it is difficult to differentiate bteween them. As a mother, however, she is depicted much more extensively and completely. Her farmstead on the sky mountain borders that of Dievs, and both Dieva d_eli and Saules meitas (Daughters of the Sun) play and work together. Sometimes Dievs and Saule become enraged at each other because of their respective children, as, for example, when Dieva d_eli break the rings of Saules meitas or when Saules meitas shatter the swords of Dieva d_eli. Their enmity lasts three days, which some scholars explain through natural phenomena; i.e., the three days before the new moon when Dievs, a substitute for the moon, is not visible. That Saule, richly described in mythology, also had a cult devoted to her is suggested by many hymns in her honour. They contain either expressions of thanks for her bounty or prayers seeking her aid, not only in relation to agriculture but to life in general. In agriculture Saule is a sanctifier of the fertility of the fields; in the life of the individual she is a typical sky goddess, interfering in her omniscience. She has human moral characteristics and punishes the immoral and aids the suffering. Though the question of where Saule's places of worship were located is not solved, the occassions for rituals pertaining to Saule have been definitely established, the most important of which was the summer solstice. Besides song, recitative, and dance, a central place in the ceremonies was occupied by a ritual meal, at which cheese and a drink brewed with honey (later beer) were consumed. M_eness. M_eness, the moon, also belongs to the sky pantheon. Detailed analysis only recently has shown that he has a role as a war god in Baltic religion. Such a role is indicated not only by his dress and accoutrements but especially by his weapons and expressions used in times of war. The influence of syncretism, however, has erased the outlines of his characteristics so far as to make a description of his role and any cult he may have had very difficult. The sky wedding myths furnish a somewhat more complete picture in which he is represented as a conflict-creating rival suitor of Auseklis (the Morning Star). Auseklis, his sons, Dieva d_eli, and Saules meitas form a separate group of divinities. Although they are mentioned in the sky myths, they have remained only as personifications of natural phenomena, characterized by the most beautiful metaphors. It is notable that a common characteristic of the sky gods, and, in fact, of all Baltic divinites, is the express tendency for each to have a family. All the divinities mentioned above are closely associated with horses: they either ride or are drawn in chariots across the sky mountain and arrive on earth in the same fashion. The number of horses is indeterminate but usually varies from two to five or more. This trait also confirms the close ties between Baltic and Indo-Iranian religions. Although males form the majority of the sky gods, the chthonic (underworld) divinities are mostly female. In both Latvian and Lithuanian religions the earth is personified and called Earth Mother (Latvian Zemes m_ate, Lithuanian ^Zemyna). But the Lithuanians also have ^Zem.epatis, Earth Master. Latvians in general refer to mothers, Lithuanians to masters. Zemes m_ate is the only deity in addition to Dievs who is originally responsible for human welfare. Based on the writings of the Roman historian Tacitus, it has been asserted that she is the mother of the other gods, but there is no support for this view in other sources. Under the influence of Christian-pagan syncretism, the Virgin Mary has assumed some of the functions of Zemes m_ate. Furthermore, some of these functions have been acquired and differentiated by various other later divinities, who, however, have not lost their original chthonic character. Thus, a deity of the dead has developed from Zemes m_ate, called in Latvian Smil^su m_ate (Mother of the Sands), Kapu m_ate (Mother of the Graves), and Ve,lu m_ate (Mother of the Ghosts). Libations and sacrifices were offered to Zemes m_ate. Such rituals were also performed in connection with the other divinities at a later stage of development. The fertility of the fields is also guaranteed by Jumis, who is symbolized by a double head of grain, and by various mothers, such as Lauka m_ate (Mother of the Fields), Linu m_ate (Mother of the Flax), and Mie^za m_ate (Mother of the Barley). Forest and agricultural deities. A forest divinity, common to all Baltic peoples, is called in Latvian Me^za m_ate (Mother of the Forest, Lithuanian Medein.e). She again has been further differentiated into other divinities, or rather she was given metaphorical appellations with no mythological significance, such as Kr_umu m_ate (Mother of the Bushes), Lazdu m_ate (Mother of the Hazels), Lapu m_ate (Mother of the Leaves), Ziedu m_ate (Mother of the Blossoms), and even S_e,nu m_ate (Mother of the Mushrooms). Forest animals are ruled by the Lithuanian Zv.erin.e opposed to the Latvian Me^za m_ate. The safety and welfare of the farmer's house is cared for by the Latvian M_ajas gars (Spirit of the House; Lithuanian Kaukas), which lives in the hearth. Similarly, other farm buildings have their own patrons - Latvian Pirts m_ate (Mother of the Bathhouse), Rijas m_ate (Mother of the Threshing House); Lithuanian Gabjauja. Because natural phenomena and processes have often been raised to the level of divinities, there is a large number of beautifully described lesser mythological beings whose functions are either very limited or completely denoted by their names. Water deities are Latvian J_uras m_ate (Mother of the Sea), _Udens m_ate (Mother of the Waters), Upes m_ate (Mother of the Rivers), and Bangu m_ate (Mother of the waves; Lithuanian Bangp_ut_ys), while atmospheric deities are Latvian V_eja m_ate (Mother of the Wind), Lithuanian V.ejopatis (Master of the Wind), Latvian Lietus m_ate (Mother of the Rain), Miglas m_ate (Mother of the Fog), and Sniega m_ate (Mother of the Snow). Even greater is the number of those beings related to human activities, but only their names are still to be found, for example Miega m_ate (Mother of Sleep) and Tirgus m_ate (Mother of the Market). Goddess of destiny. Because of peculiarities of the source materials, it is difficult to determine whether the goddess of destiny, Laima (from the root word laime, meaning "happiness" and "luck"), originally had the same importance in Baltic religion as later, or whether her eminence is due to specific historical circumstances of each of the Baltic peoples. In any case, a wide collection of material concerning Laima is available. The real ruler of human fate, she is mentioned frequently together with Dievs in connection with the process of creation. Although Laima determines a man's unchangeable destiny at the moment of his birth, he can still lead his life well or badly within the limits prescribed by her. She also determines the moment of a person's death, sometimes even arguing about it with Dievs. The devil. The devil, Velns, has a well-defined role, which is rarely documented so well in the folklore of other peoples. Besides the usual outer features, several characteristics are especially emphasized. Velns, for instance, is a stupid devil. In addition, the Balts are the only colonialized people in Europe who have preserved a large amount of folklore that in different variations and situations portray the devil as a German landlord. Another evil being is the Latvian Vilkacis, Lithuanian Vilkatas, who corresponds to the werewolf in the traditions of other peoples. The belief that the dead do not leave this world completely is the basis for both good and evil spirits. As good spirits the dead return to the living as invisible beings (Latvian velis, Lithuanian v.el.es), but as evil ones they return as persecutors and misleaders (Latvian vad_at_ajs, Lithuanian vaidilas).